Photographer Margret Bourke-White Was Indefatigable but Not Quite Indestructible

                     

                               Margret Bourke-White in her element as an industrial photographer in 1935.

Sean Callahan, an awe struck admirer and author of the book Margaret Bourke-White: Photographer noted, “The woman who had been torpedoed in the Mediterranean, strafed by the Luftwaffe, stranded on an Arctic island, bombarded in Moscow, and pulled out of the Chesapeake when her chopper crashed, was known to the Life staff as “Maggie the Indestructible.”  But the pioneering photographer and war correspondent turned out to be not quite so indestructible.  In 1953 at the height of her creative powers and fame she began to notice alarming symptoms which turned out to be Parkinson’s Disease, then untreatable.  She endured a slow deterioration which forced her into semi-retirement by 1957 and ended all of her work by 1968.  She endured with the disease for 18 years before dying of it in near poverty on August 27, 1971 in Stamford, Connecticut.

Margret White was born in New York City on June 14, 1904.  Her father, Joseph White, an immigrant secularized Polish Jew who was a naturalist, engineer, and inventor.  Her mother was Minnie Bourke, an American-born Irish Catholic.  Both parents, however, rejected their birth faiths and were ardent free thinkers.  The family, including young Maggie and sister and brother, were comfortably middle class, and soon left the city for the leafy small town of Bound Brook, New Jersey, a historic burb on the Raritan River in the north central part of the state.

Maggie, like her brother and older sister, worshiped her brilliant father, a perfectionist with high expectations of his offspring.  Her artistic mother was also a feminist who imbued her with the notion not to allow herself to be limited by customary gender roles.  All the children were inoculated with a mission to serve humanity, even save the world through relentless self-improvement and achievement.

While a student at Plainfield High School, Margaret picked up a passion for photography from her father who was fascinated by cameras and interested in nature photography.  After graduation from high school, she was interested in becoming a professional photographer—a business with few successful women practitioners—but followed her father’s advice to pursue science.

In 1922 White enrolled at Columbia University in New York to study herpetology—the study of snakes and reptiles.  But while at Columbia she took photography classes with Clarence Hudson White, founder of the Photo-Secession movement with Alfred Stieglitz which re-invigorated her interest in the medium.  Her time at Columbia, however, was cut short by the sudden and devastating death of her father after one semester.

White never returned to Columbia.  She restlessly moved from school to school driven by her often impossibly high expectations of the institutions, her own perfectionism, and a bristling refusal to bow to any restrictions placed on her as a woman.  Romance and its failure may also have played a part. White married fellow student Everett Chapman in 1924 and divorced him just two years later. She studied successively at the University of Michigan, Perdue, and Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio, before finally settling in comfortably at Cornell, in Ithaca, New York.  Perhaps it helped that Ithaca reminded her of her New Jersey home.  When she graduated, she left a remarkable portfolio of campus photos for the student newspaper which concentrate on buildings and architectural detail.

                                                   

                                                                        Bourke-White as a young photographer.

Despite the odds against her, White was determined to pursue a career as a photographer.  A year after graduating from Cornell in 1927 she established her own commercial photography studio in Cleveland, Ohio where she specialized in architectural and industrial work.  Symbolically, she abandoned her married name and the adopted the hyphenated name Bourke-White to preserve her independence and honor her mother equally with her father.

In her early days Bourke-White struggled to get commissions.  Her breakthrough came when she got a job from the Otis Steel Company to document their production process.  Even though she had been hired by the company, their security agents tried to block her access in the shaky grounds that steel was a defense industry and photos of production could risk the national security and plant superintendents and foremen worried that a mere woman could not stand the intense heat and danger of being close to blast furnaces and molten metal.  She got her way around these objections with flirtatious eyelash batting, and when that didn’t work, terrifying bullying.

                                            Bourke-White endangered assistants and herself to capture the drama of molten steel at the Otis Steel mill in Cleveland.

Once in the plants Bourke-White quickly discovered technical challenges.  She set up what she thought were brilliant, dramatic shots of steel being poured then discovered in the dark room that the black and white film she was using was not sensitive to the glowing red and orange of hot steel—the molten metal came out nearly black in prints.  She solved the problem by lighting her shots by having assistants hold magnesium flares which produced a brilliant white light.  The aids sometimes had to be positioned dangerously close to the flowing steel and showering sparks, but she was heedless of their—and her own—safety.  The results were stunning.  No photographer had ever before captured the dazzling drama of hot steel.  When the shots were published, Bourke-White was recognized as a master of her medium.

That 1928 shoot led directly to a prestigious new job as associate editor and staff photographer for Fortune magazine in 1929.  In 1930 the magazine sent her to the Soviet Union where she became one of the first western photojournalists to document Russian industry under Communism.  That trip would help make her welcome a decade later when she was posted to Moscow as a foreign correspondent.

In 1936 Henry Luce, publisher of Time and Fortune bought the failing old humor magazine Life just for its name.  He wanted to launch a new weekly newsmagazine that would rely mostly on photography to tell its stories—a newsreel on slick paper as he envisioned it.  Bourke-White, already working for him at Fortune and who had the strong support of Luce’s feminist wife Clair Boothe Luce, was his first hire for the new project.  Not only was she a photographer, but she set up the sophisticated photo lab that would be required to process and print the hundreds, often thousands of images that would pour into magazine every week from around the world.  When the new magazine hit the newsstands on November 23, 1936, Bourke-White’s photo of the Fort Peck Dam was on the cover.  The new magazine was an immediate success and almost instantly a national institution.

                    

                                This photo of the Fort Peck Dam was featured on the inaugural issue of Henry Luce's Life Magazine.

Luce was an arch conservative and rabid anti-New Dealer, which was reflected in the editorial content of the magazine.  Hardly anyone, however, read Luce’s ranting editorials.  They turned to the magazine for the dramatic coverage of the world around them, including the stark poverty of the Depression years.  Luce never seemed to learn that the pictures that he printed worked against all his politics.  Pictures by Bourke-White and others evoked sympathy for the plight of workers and celebrated the triumphs of things like CCC camps and WPA public works projects and actually rallied public support for the New Deal.  Luce never learned this lesson and in later years coverage of his photographers of the Civil Rights Movement, the emerging counterculture of the ‘60s, and the experience of grunts on the ground in Vietnam all worked against his personal political agenda.

Bourke-White, who had made her reputation photographing industry, turned more and more to human subjects in her coverage of the Great Depression.  In 1937 she toured the South dramatically documenting conditions there.  The results were iconic photos like the one published on February 15, 1937 of displaced Black flood victims lined up for food in front of a huge billboard of a smiling white family in an automobile with the tag line “World’s Highest Standard of Living—There’s No Way Like the American Way.”  Seldom was there a more deeply subversive photo ever published.

This Bourke-White photo is still used as a dramatic illustration the American class divide.

Besides shooting for Time, Bourke-White took her own photos on her swing through the South then collaborated on a book with Erskine Caldwell, the Georgia-born Southern gothic novelist best known for God’s Little Acre. Caldwell wrote the text and Bourke-White provided the photo illustrations, and both collaborated on the captions.  Caleb Crain described the process in a 2009 New Yorker article:

Bourke-White lay in wait for her subjects with a flash and wrote with pleasure of having them “imprisoned on a sheet of film before they knew what had happened.” The resulting portraits are by turns sentimental and grotesque, and she and Caldwell printed them with contrived first-person captions.

The resulting book, Have You Seen Their Faces was published by Viking Press, with a paperback version by Modern Age Books following quickly.  It pre-dated the more celebrated collaboration of James Agee and Walker Evans, Let Us Now Praise Famous Men published in 1941 by four years.

The work with Caldwell also led to romance.  The couple married in 1939 and divorced in 1942 largely due to Bourke-White’s lengthy absences on overseas assignments.

Those assignments came as tensions in Europe were on the rise.  She was dispatched to survey what everyday life was like under the Fascists in Italy, Nazis in Germany, and Soviet Communists.  Despite being under tight surveillance and often escorted by handlers meant to make sure that she only took positive photos, her keen eye was able to pick out many telling moments.  In the Soviet Union, her earlier visit there led to unprecedented access, including to Joseph Stalin himself in an informal and un-posed session which even caught the usually stern dictator laughing.

When War broke out in 1939, Bourke-White applied for credentials as a war correspondent to various governments.  She even gave up her full-time job at Time, which did not want to send her in harm’s way, in 1940 to become a freelance correspondent sending photos and articles to several American newspapers.  She did continue to sell pictures to Time and was eventually rehired by them to be a war correspondent.

In fact, Bourke-White became the first accredited American female war correspondent.  She was back in Moscow when Germany broke the Hitler-Stalin Pact and attacked the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941.  In fact, she was the only western photographer in the Capital as the city came under Luftwaffe bombardment which set of firestorms.  She photographed the burning city from the roof of the American Embassy.

       

                 Ready to fly with the boys of the Army Air Force in 1942.

When the United States entered the war, Bourke-White became the first woman correspondent.  She was first attached to the Army Air Force in North Africa and became the first woman to fly on Combat bombing missions.  At desert air bases she had to run for cover from strafing and dive-bombing Stukas.  Later she was assigned to Army infantry and artillery in Italy where the Army was bogged down in a grueling mountain campaigning.   She won the respect of the troops for her courage under frequent fire.

In between, Bourke-White was on board the British troop ship SS Strathallan bound to North Africa from England when it was torpedoed and sunk.  She turned to the experience into the photo essay Women in Lifeboats which appeared in Life on February 22, 1943.  

Buchenwald survivors.  Bourke's photo were some of the first images of Nazi horrors that Americans got to see.   

Toward the end of the war Bourke-White toured recently captured and occupied German territory with General George Patton.  She was with him at Buchenwald short days after the Death Camp was liberated.  The experience shook her to the core:

Using a camera was almost a relief. It interposed a slight barrier between myself and the horror in front of me.  The photos she took, and which were published in Time were among the first and most detailed images of the horror that Americans got to see.  After the war she assembled and wrote Dear Fatherland, Rest Quietly: A Report On The Collapse Of Hitler’s Thousand Years.  It was an eyewitness account of devastated Germany after the war in which she displayed scant sympathy for the German civilians she held responsible for the rise of Hitler and still, in the face of overwhelming mounting evidence of atrocities, remained in denial about national guilt and their own responsibility for the wretched conditions to which they had been lowered.   It was a tough book—and a highly controversial one.  

Among Bourke-Whites most important post-war assignments was the independence of the Indian sub-continent and the bloody partition of India and Pakistan.  She photographed all the key players.  Her photograph of Mohandas Gandhi emaciated from fasting and sitting at his spinning wheel became one of the most recognizable images of him.  There was a stern photo of Pakistani founder Mohammed Ali Jinnah sitting upright in a chair.  But it was the photos of the devastating partition violence that stood out.  Somini Sengupta, a noted Indian journalist working for the New York Times called Bourke-White’s photographs “gut-wrenching, and staring at them, you glimpse the photographer’s undaunted desire to stare down horror…Bourke-White’s photographs seem to scream from the page.” In 1948 she was back in India and again photographed and interviewed Gandhi hours before his assassination.

Bourke-White's iconic photo of Gandhi and his spinning wheel.

These pictures were taken just two years after her experience at Buchenwald.  Bourke-White had seen more than her share of the horrors that humanity was capable of.

She continued to do fine work for Life until her Parkinson’s forced her retirement.  Even then she kept up a limited amount of freelance work.  But the tremors of the disease made it increasingly difficult to hold a camera steady or to do the dark room work that she relished.  Experimental surgeries to her nervous system in 1959 and 1961 reduced the tremors but drastically affected her speech.  And the procedures could not halt the slow march of her body toward paralysis.

Unable to do much with her camera, Bourke-White penned a bestselling memoir, Portrait of Myself published in 1963. 

She spent the rest of the decade in failing health and increasing isolation in her Darien, Connecticut home.  A generous Time-Life pension and royalties from her books and photographs could not keep up with the rapidly mounting cost of her medical expenses and the need for 24 hour a day nursing care.  By the time she finally slipped away, she was broke.

Burke-White’s photos are on display and in the collections of several museums including the Brooklyn Museum, the Cleveland Museum of Art, the New Mexico Museum of Art, and the Museum of Modern Art in New York as well as in the collection of the Library of Congress.

The rise of academic women’s studies almost on the heels of her death helped revive interest in Bourke-White and elevated her to new status as an inspirational role model.  Candice Bergen played her in the Academy Award winning film Gandhi in 1982 and Farrah Fawcett portrayed her in a made-for-TV bio pic, Double Exposure: The Story of Margaret Bourke-White in 1989.

National Park Service Celebrates its Birthday Under Siege

 

The National Park Service celebrates its 110th birthday this week. It oversees a system that now includes 201 National Parks and Historic Sites, 86 National Monuments, 31 National Memorials, 25 National Battlefields and Military Parks, plus scores of Nature Preserves and Reserves, Recreational Areas, Scenic Rivers, Sea Shores, Lakesides, Trails, Parkways, and Special Designations like the White House and National Mall.  There are now Park Service facilities in every state and within an hour’s travel of 90% of the population.

National Parks are 50 years older than the Park Service dating to the creation of Yellowstone National Park but were haphazardly managed on sort of an ad hoc basis by the under-staffed and funded Department of the Interior and the U. S. Army.  Yes, troops were the first Park Rangers after early tourists were surprised if unmolested by the Nez Piercé on their epic attempt to escape the Army to Canada.  In the Yellowstone, many of them were Black Buffalo Soldiers.

An early glimmering of the idea of preserving scenic wonders came in the midst of the Civil War when in order to reward California’s loyalty to the Union—it had been a close thing—Abraham Lincoln signed into law an Act supported by Sen. John Conness and leading citizens transferring the Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Big Tree Grove to the state to “be held for public use, resort, and recreation...inalienable for all time.”

The first actual National Park was not created until 1872 when President Ulysses S. Grant signed into law the Act creating Yellowstone National Park.  The large, remote area in northern Wyoming, southern Montana, and a sliver of eastern Idaho had attracted national attention when the reports of the private Cook–Folsom–Peterson Expedition of 1869 and the larger semi-official Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition in 1870 detailed the wonders of its geysers, thermal springs, and the magnificent Falls at the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone.  Writer and lawyer Cornelius Hedges, a member of the latter expedition, publicly advocated for preservation of the region and had the backing of some Territorial officials. 

But it was not until railroad tycoon Jay Cooke, not normally associated with selfless public advocacy, threw his considerable weight around in Congress that action was taken.  Cooke was interested because he saw that he could promote access to the Park from his Northern Pacific Railway to supply passenger traffic on his railroad which was still under construction.  Indeed, for years after Cooke lost control of the road, the Northern Pacific flooded the East with enticing brochures and colorful posters that made the park a popular attraction to a growing middle class with disposable income and leisure time. 

 Buffalo Soldiers on patrol in Yellowstone Park in the 1880's.

Yellowstone was meant to be a singular creation.  But once a precedent was set other local interests were able to access the proper powerful forces in Congress press for the creation of Parks in their area.  Michigan officials and Great Lakes shipping promoters got Mackinac Island in northern Lake Huron protected when the garrison at Ft. Mackinac was in danger of being removed since another war with the British in Canada had become a remote possibility.  The Island was already a resort destination.  It was approved as a National Park in 1875 and its Army garrison was made its guardian.  The private resort on the Island flourished while the Federal Government assumed the expense of upkeep of the Park and preservations of the Fort and scenic wonders.  The park flourished for twenty years before operators of the resort began to resent Federal regulations and lobbied successfully to have the Park and fort turned over to the state of Michigan.

In 1890 Sequoia National Park was created in California and the following year Army Cavalry units took over the care of Yosemite Park, still officially owned by the state.  In 1906 the Federal government assumed ownership and control of the Park.

The system that was hardly a system bumped along.  Not much money was spent.  Improvements were often limited to dirt roads, crude trails, and the most basic of campgrounds and picnic areas.  Anything more elaborate was left to concessionaires who operated rustic inns or elegant resort hotels.  But attendance and public interest grew year by year.  The Sierra Club and other early conservation groups lobbied for improvements and expansions.

Things really took off when enthusiastic outdoorsman and conservationist Theodore Roosevelt fell into the Presidency thanks to an assassin’s bullet in 1901.  Not only did he create the United States Forest Service and National Forest system, scores of Bird Sanctuaries and Game Reserves, but he added new National Parks including Crater Lake, Mesa Verdi, and Windcave in South Dakota.

Residents of the Southwest had been advocating preservation of the ruins of several cliff dwellings and Pueblos which were threatened by looting pottery hunters and vandals.  Another railroad, this time the Santa Fe, lent its support.  These sites were considered worthy of protection and preservation, but the desolate surrounding mountains and deserts were not. Gold, silver, and copper mining companies coveted the land for exploitation.  That left isolated pockets that were considered too small to be designated a traditional National Park and there was no precedent for preserving archeological and historic man-made sites. With Roosevelt’s support Congress passed the Antiquities Act of 1906 to give the President the authority to create National Monuments from public lands, by Presidential proclamation, to protect significant natural, cultural, or scientific features.  

                            Devil's Tower in 1900, soon to be made the first National Monument by Theodore Roosevelt.

The first National Monument created was Devil’s Tower in northeast Wyoming in the vicinity of Roosevelt’s old stomping grounds as a South Dakota rancher in the area around the Black Hills.  On the recommendation of a scientific and scholarly commission, several of the Native American sites were added over Roosevelt’s tenure and under his successors William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson.

This new category did not require individual action by Congress and Monuments were created from land on military reservations, National Forests, and Interior Department lands at least theoretically available for Homestead.  Sometimes those proclamations clashed with local interests, especially mining, and they became controversial.

Despite the expansion and a sharp spike in visitors as some parks became accessible by bus and automobile, management was still haphazard.  Were the Army was not in de facto control, management and care was left to a hodge-podge of contractors and locally recruited employees often without much experience or expertise.  Secretaries of the Interior under William Howard Taft and Wodrow Wilson, the powerful American Civic Association, a pillar of the establishment; landscape architect Fredrick Law Olmsted; Representatives William Kent and John E. Raker of California; Senator Reed Smoot of Utah; industrialist and conservationist Stephen T. Mather; journalist Robert Sterling Yard; and California conservationist Horace M. Albright led a campaign for the establishment of a new agency under the Department of the Interior with the authority control, manage, and plan development of the National Parks.  They got support from the Army, which was busy chasing Pancho Villa in Mexico on one hand and faced with the possibility of eventual entry into the Great War in Europe on the other was eager to shed its responsibilities in the Parks.

                                First Park Service Director, Stephen T. Mather.

Congress finally acted and Wilson signed the National Park Service Organic Act on August 25, 1916.  It brought all of the National Parks and some National Monuments under the control of the new agency.  Stephen Mather, as expected was named the first Director of the agency with Albright as his deputy.  Heading the list of his early achievements was overseeing the creation of Grand Canyon National Park in 1919 against vehement opposition from mining interests. 

Mather was respected enough as a non-partisan figure to be held over in the Republican administrations of Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge.  Miraculously, he insulated the Park Service from the corruption scandals that engulfed Harding’s Interior Secretary Albert Fall and other agencies of the Department.  Mather created a professional civil service organization, increased the numbers of parks and national monuments, and established systematic criteria for adding new properties to the system.  

Despite battle with bi-polar disorder which sometimes left him so depressed he was unable to work, with the close support of Albright Mather he was able to convince Congress to make the first expansions of National Parks in the East when the Shenandoah and Great Smoky Mountains National Parks were authorized in 1926. He suffered a stroke in 1929 and had to retire, dying less than a year later.  Albright continued his work in the Herbert Hoover administration.

Second Park Service head Horace M. Albright with friends.

A big part of the building the new Park Service was the creation and development of Park Rangers to replace the Army and assorted patronage hires and private contractors who had managed, protected, and policed the Parks.  They took their name from Roger’s Rangers of the French and Indian Wars and futile search for the elusive Northwest Passage, but were inspired by Harry Yount, the Gamekeeper of Yellowstone National Park in 1880 and ’81 who patrolled for poachers and acted as a guide for tourists and an escort for visiting officials.  Yount told his boss Interior Secretary Carl Schruz before he resigned in frustration at being overwhelmed by a job to big for a single man, that the Park needed to “…be protected by officers stationed at different points of the park with authority to enforce observance of laws of the park [and for] maintenance and trails.”

Mather described the plethora of duties and responsibilities of the Rangers:

They are a fine, earnest, intelligent, and public-spirited body of men, these rangers. Though small in number, their influence is large. Many and long are the duties heaped upon their shoulders. If a trail is to be blazed, it is “send a ranger.” If an animal is floundering in the snow, a ranger is sent to pull him out; if a bear is ranger.” If a Dude wants to know the why, if a Sagebrusher is puzzled about a road, it is “ask the ranger.” Everything the ranger knows, he will tell you, except about himself.

The earliest Rangers wore the civilian gear of a woodsman, hunter, or logger.  Senior Rangers, Park Superintendents and the like, could be distinguished mostly by wearing a tie, polished boots, and a hat without holes in it.  Soon they adopted military style uniforms, kaki and later green with the same soft felt campaign hats as the Doughboys of World War I.  By the late 20’s the uniform was made sharper for public duties—a stiff brimmed gray Stetson replaced the soft felt, green jacket and trousers, and a gray shirt with a tie.  Basically, the recognizable iconic uniform is still in use today for both male and female Rangers.  Summer uniforms now feature gray short sleeve, open collar shirts and straw versions of the Stetson or green baseball style caps for work details.

                                            Young Gerald R. Ford, a seasonal Park Ranger in Yellowstone in the classic Ranger uniform.

The election of Franklin D. Roosevelt heralded a new era for the Park Service.  In one of his last major acts Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933 which gave his incoming successor the power to reorganize the Executive Branch of the government. Later that summer Albright brought the FDR a proposal for sweeping changes to his agency.  Roosevelt approved two executive orders not only transferred to the National Park Service all the War Department historic sites—battlefields, some cemeteries and fortifications—but also those National Monuments which had been managed by the Department of Agriculture.  In addition, the monuments and parks around Washington D.C.  which had been run by an independent office were brought under the Department including the Washington Monument, Lincoln and Jefferson Memorials, the National Mall, Lafayette Park, and the grounds of the White House.  For the first time Park Rangers were active and interacting with hundreds of thousands of visitors a year in an urban setting.  In the wake of the reorganization the Park System expanded by adding 12 natural areas in 9 western states and Alaska and 57 historical areas located in 17 predominantly eastern states and the District of Columbia.

It was Albright’s last hurrah at the helm.  Roosevelt appointee Arno B. Cammerer, a career department official and former top aide to both Mather and Albright took over.  He would remain in charge until 1940 despite clashes with Interior Secretary Harold Ickes, a top New Dealer with a more political agenda.  He began to survey and record historic sites and buildings outside the existing parks, and worked with Congress to pass the Historic Sites Act as well as a law establishing the National Park Foundation to privately raise funds for Park acquisitions and improvements.  Several more sites of all types were added including many in the East and closer to heavy population centers.

CCC workers construct a small foot path timber bridge at Acadia National Park in Maine.

The Parks really got a boost when the New Deal came into full swing.  Park improvement projects including road and bridge construction, trail development, visitors centers, campgrounds, piers and docks, and interpretive museums were built by the Works Projects Administration (WPA) and especially by the Civilian Conservation Corps.  At the program’s peak in 1935, the Service had 118 CCC camps assigned to National Park System areas, with approximately 120,000 enrollees and 6,000 supervisors. All of that work really transformed many Parks and the improvements can still be seen and used today.

As a result of greater access to the parks by automobile and the increase in facilities within easy reach of many citizens, over the Depression years Park attendance jumped from two million annual visitors  in 1933 to more than 15 million in 1940.  In fact, by stimulating travel and tourism, the National Park system contributed to the long climb to economic recovery.

Cammerer suffered a heart attack in 1940, that many said was brought about by his clashes with Ickes and had to resign.  He was dead a year later.  His replacement Newton B. Drury, an advertising executive and leader of the Save the Redwoods League was the first Director not to come up through the ranks of the Park Service.  He was immediately faced with the reality of World War II mobilization and a massive shift in spending priorities by the Roosevelt administration.  Money for further expansion of the system evaporated.  The CCC wound down and was eliminated, the young men one destined for its ranks drafted into the armed services instead.

Much of Drury’s time was spent eking out the most of his diminishing resources, fighting further cuts in Congress, dealing with labor shortages as his Park Rangers and civilian employees were syphoned off into the military or into industrial defense production.  There was also a constant battle to keep the Parks from being invaded for their resources in the name of defense production including mining across the Southwest and lumbering.  The military also pressed for use of Park lands for training camps, airfields, and even artillery and bombing ranges. 

Even after war’s end, the mindset of the Truman administration was far less friendly to traditional conservation values and wanted to use Park lands more like the National Forests which were managed more for their resources than for their preservation as natural places.  Money for expansion and maintenance did not come flooding back from the Federal Budget.  At the same time after a lull in the war time rationing years, Americans were hitting the roads again in droves and the National Parks and Monuments were a popular destination.  Annual visits soared again and the parks were unable to update to accommodate them, or even to adequately maintain their infrastructure. 

In 1951 Drury clashed with Interior Secretary Oscar L. Chapman over his support for the Echo Dam project which would have flooded canyons of the Colorado River in Dinosaur National Park.  It was part of a proposed system of dams on the Colorado and Green Rivers for hydro-electric generation.  Drury resigned in protest and helped rally massive opposition to the project from across the Conservation movement.  After year of protest, Congress removed the Echo Canon project but approved the construction of the other dams in the system.  1956 legislation forbad building such projects in the future on Park Land.  It was seen as an early victory of a resurgent conservation movement.

After a short interim, Conrad L. Wirth became Director in December of 1951.  He was a park professional and a member of the Park service since reorganization.  He found the incoming Eisenhower administration mildly friendlier to the Park System and conservation concerns as the economy shifted into an unprecedented extended boom.  Wirth began his term with a systematic survey of Park Service facilities and found them badly neglected and inadequate to still soaring public usage.

As a result, in 1955 Wirth proposed a decade-long program of capital improvements, to be funded as a single program by Congress aimed at modernizing all Parks properties by the Service’s 50th Anniversary in 1966.  The program, dubbed Mission 66 represented the most significant re-allocation of resources since the Reorganization and the first capital development since the CCC days.  It also represented a change in philosophy.

Mission 66 buildings abandoned the rustic style traditional with the Park Service for sleek, Mid-Century Modern buildings like the Quarry Visitor's Center at Dinosaur National Monument.  Now tastes have changed and many of these building are thought to be intrusive in their environment and 50 years later are in deteriorating condition.  Several, like this one either have been razed or will be.

The Park Service wanted to create facilities that were modern and up to date, abandoning the rustic style that had been its trademark.  New visitor’s centers and museums were sleek, low-strung, and apt examples of Mid-Century modern design and architectural tastes.  A controversial shift from showcasing nature to accommodating visitors who were increasingly using the parks as family vacation destinations led to road and highway building in the parks and the development of some large-scale resort-like developments reaching the proportions of new towns in popular destinations Parks like Yellowstone, Grand Teton, and Sequoia.

The project also involved for the first time large scale urban redevelopment.  In St. Louis, Missouri the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial cleared 40 blocks of crumbling warehouses, business, and residential slums for a landscaped open space to showcase the Gateway Arch, purposefully designed tourist attraction monument.  Similar urban clearance razed hundreds of buildings in Philadelphia, several of them of historic significance to create the Independence Mall to better display a resorted Independence Hall at the heart of the Independence National Historical Park.

Somewhat ironically considering the destruction of historic building in these projects, Wirth’s revival of the Historic American Buildings Survey which had been suspended since the War years led to the creation of the National Historic Landmarks and National Register of Historic Places programs in 1960.

An emphasis on developing recreational use of the Parks spurred development of National Seashore and National Recreation Area programs and the additions of Cape Cod, Point Reyes, Fire Island, and Padre Island into the system.

Wirth retired in 1963 as his grand project neared its culmination.  He recommended his deputy, George Hartzog as his successor.  He started as an attorney for the Interior Department’s Bureau of Land Management and moved over to the Park Service in 1945.  He was Superintendent in charge of development of the Jefferson Expansion park in St. Louis.  He served under an administration even friendlier to conservation than Eisenhower’s.  Interior Secretary Stuart Udall was an enthusiast for natural preservation.  Together they pushed for the development of included 62 new parks, the adoption National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, and the Bible Amendment to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act that led to establishment of the Alaska parks.  He also aggressively pushed forward with the creation of urban parks, especially Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore near Gary, Indiana and Chicago.

In 1969 under the Nixon Administration budget, the Park Service faced its first significant cuts in years.  Hartzog argued that the cuts were so severe that they would force cutbacks in service to the public.  To prove his point, he closed popular facilities such as the Washington Monument and Grand Canyon National Park for two days a week arguing that he couldn’t afford full staffing.  The move inconvenienced and angered tens of thousands of tourists and enraged members of Congress and the conservative press who called the political gambit the Washington Monument Syndrome.  None-the-less, it worked, and public pressure resulted in the restoration of the cuts.  But an outraged Nixon forced Hartzog to resign.    

It was the beginning of a long struggle between the rising expectations of the rapidly growing Ecology Movement on one hand which was supplanting traditional conservationism and rising conservative hostility on a number of fronts.  Conservation and the Parks had generally enjoyed bi-partisan support but the rise of environmentalism, which was evidenced in changing priorities and educational programs by the Park Service, was seen as an attack on American industry.  Demands were made to open the Parks again for extractive exploitation, especially oil and gas exploitation and proposals that would have leveled much of the Colorado Rockies for oil shale while environmentalists were demanding ever-stricter protections from damage done to parks by even peripheral development. 

Regan Administration Interior Secretary James Watt of Wyoming was a born again Christian who believed that the end of days was imminent.  In his view, with the apocalypse looming there was no need to conserve resources, but people had a full right to consume as much as they desired since there would be no human inheritors of the Earth.  I am not kidding, Watt really professed to believe that and made it the cornerstone of his policy, which put him at odds with the non-political, professional management of the Park System.  Luckily public outrage and Congressional opposition were enough to block most of Watt’s most ambitious plans, but the battle was far from over.

The Lincoln Memorial and Park Service properties across the country were closed to visitors during the Government Shutdown of 2013.

The Park Service became an annual prime target of Congressional budget hawks of both parties who sought to slash discretionary spending in pursuit of the ever-elusive balanced budget and debt reduction.  Budget lines actually fell in some years or more often were frozen failing to keep up with inflation and resulting in massive de facto cuts.  Funds for land acquisition were slashed to near zero, capital projects halted, and maintenance deferred.  Meanwhile infrastructure in the Parks has taken a beating to the point that roads and bridges had to be closed as unsafe.  In the system’s centennial year, there was a slight uptick—a $90 million in general deferred maintenance and $28 million in road and transportation repair, but the total deferred maintenance stood at an estimated at nearly $12 billion dollars.

Beyond penny pinching, two other issues made conservatives increasingly hostile to the Park Service.  It turns out that National Parks taught visitors, including children that evolution over millennia is accepted science.  That means the Earth is more than 6000 years old and that humans evolved from earlier species of apes.  Worse, the service acknowledged global climate change and developed special educational programs to demonstrate it. That made the Park Service a prime target of the war on science.

Then, a one-time fringe theory that the Federal Government has no right to retain public land, including Parks and that they should be turned over to the states, or even to counties emerged on the far Right wing.  This dovetailed with the libertarian and Tea Party horror at the supposed “tragedy of the commons”.  At its most benign it resulted in moves by the House of Representatives to sell all or parts of the National Park system along with Forest Service and other public lands and in the state of Utah officially demanding Federal lands be turned over to the states.  On the more extreme level it played out in the armed seizure of the National Fish and Wildlife Service managed Malheur National Wildlife Refuge near Burns, Oregon by right wing militia.

Countering this trend Barak Obama was the most supportive President of the Park Service since Lyndon Johnson and dueled repeatedly with Congress about it.  In 2013 the Service was front and center in the government shutdown crisis when much like Hartzog back in 1969 Director Jonathan Jarvis shut down monuments on the National Mall and other Park attractions nationally.  Even when the crisis passed and the facilities reopened, thousands of employees were furloughed.

Meanwhile, the President used his authority to create new federally protected land in the system more frequently than any President since Roosevelt.  He has authorized 19 new Park System units and approved 5 more pending land acquisitions.  Many of these sites were highly controversial.  Many of these sites reflect an interest in broadening the historic scope of Park Service sites to include more minorities and urban experiences.  Additions under Obama  included Castle Mountains National Monument in the Mojave Desert that checkmated further development of a devastating open pit gold mining in the area; the unique Manhattan Project Historic Park with separate units in Tennessee, New Mexico, and Washington state; the Pullman National Monument in Chicago; the Valles Caldera National Preserve in New Mexico; the World War I Memorial in Washington, D.C.; the Charles Young Buffalo Soldiers National Monument in Ohio; the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Monument in Maryland; the Cesar E. Chavez National Monument in California; the Paterson Great Falls National Historical Park, a significant industrial and labor history site in New  Jersey; the Fort Monroe National Monument in Virginia; the Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial in D.C.; the President William Jefferson Clinton Birthplace Home National Historic Site in Arkansas; and the Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial; and just days before the 100th anniversary the Katahdin Woods and Waters National Monument in Maine, now the Monument in area east of the Mississippi.

Yet the struggle with Congress to adequately fund the Park System continued.  Which is why the Park Service and the Obama Administration so heavily promoted the centennial of the Park service, kicking off with the annual Independence Day Concert  and fireworks broadcast from the National Mall.  It was a full year of special events and programs at Park facilities across the country, television public service announcements, social media promotions, magazine and newspaper articles, coffee table picture books, documentaries, and a special series of postage stamps.  It was an unprecedented public relations push aimed at getting public support and neutralizing right-wing anti-park propaganda. It all culminated with free admission to all parks, special events around the country, a big show at Yellowstone Park, and a living Park Service logo by employees near the World War II Memorial in Washington.  As a result, public support for the system soared.

A Living Emblem was created on the National Mall to mark the Park Service's Centennial.

In his first White House residency Donald Trump with the full support of the MAGA Republicans in Congress, cancelled or overturned virtually all of Obama’s additions, suspended new acquisitions, and proposed selling several assets, advocated muzzling Park Service science education, and once again slashed the service’s operating budget.  More short-term shutdowns of Parks facilities during reoccurring stand-offs on raising the Federal Debt Limit further inconvenienced the public.   Court battles led by environmental organizations had mixed results in blocking some of the de-listings.

The entire system virtually shut down to the public during the Coronavirus pandemic and unlike other services like schools, the administration showed no eagerness to reopen them.  

The restoration of Bears Ears National Monument in Utah was part of Joe Biden's reversals of Trump assaults on the Park Service and public land.

Joe Biden's administration came in overwhelmed by undoing the Orange Menace’s damage in so many areas but has restored many of the de-listed or blocked Park expansions like the Bears Ears and Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monuments with Native American Secretary of the Interior Deb Haaland leading conservation efforts.  The President’s proposed hikes in operating expenses and deferred maintenance were largely blocked by the continuing Budget impasses in the divided Congress.

Despite universal acclaim by ecology advocates, Biden and Haaland got scathing reactions for authorizing the completion of the ConocoPhillips  $7 billion oil and gas drilling Willow project in Alaska which endangers several categories of Federally preserved land and was at odds with the administration's own stated strategy for reducing climate change stress by cutting back on carbon releasing energy dependence.

On the other hand, in 2023 the administration created the latest addition to the system at three locations in two states—the Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument at Graball Landing, Mississippi where 14 year old Till’s battered and mutilated body was believed to be dumped in a river, the Tallahatchie County Courthouse in Sumner, Mississippi where his killers were put on trial and acquitted by an all-White jury, and the Roberts Temple Church of God in Christ in Chicago, Illinois where Mamie Till-Mobley held an open casket funeral for her disfigured son’s body helping to spark the Civil Rights Movement. 

Trump returned to the Oval Office and things took a drastic turn for the worst for the Park Service.  Neglect and starvation turned into a crusade to curb and dismantle the agency.  Senior professional leadership and Ranger officials were fired, forced into retirement, or resigned in protest.  Rangers were transferred far from familiar facilities and areas of expertise to encourage more staff exodus.  And that was besides Elon Musk's mindless DOGE slashes.

Even more alarming was the administrations "Day One" purge of "woke" diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) across Federal Agencies.  That meant scrubbing Park web sites, tours, and publication of almost any mention of race and ethnicity and elevating the status of "real Americans."  That meant, for instance, taking down displays documenting George Washington as a slave holder at the Independence Hall/Liberty Bell Historical Site.  Interpreters at Mount Rushmore could not discuss Native American sacred claim on the land or the wars of annihilation against Great Plains nations.  Elis Island immigration materials have been censored.  It tried to block displays of the Rainbow Flag at Stonewall National Monument in New York City and censor display and content about Trans and non-binary participation in the foundational protests.  The list is virtually endless.   

Naturally Emmet Till National Monument has been targeted for erasure but so have other sites associated with slavery, civil rights, and racism.  Also in the cross hairs are facilities associated with Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad, Fredrich Douglass, lynching and Jim Crow, Rosa Parks, the Selma Campaign.

Postage signage encourages visitors to rat out any deviation from the anti-DEI crusade.

In Washington compliant hacks were put in charge multiple D.C. area cites and then saw even them overridden by Trump's ego and monuments obsession.  Witness the infamous painting of the Reflecting Pool and preservation of the National Mall razing the White House East Wing for his huge ballroom, and his proposed "Victory Arch" blocking the views between the Mall and Arlington National Cemetery across the Potomac all of which ignored Park Service policies and procedures.

Courts have blocked many, but not all of the news attacks.  But the Trump loyal Supreme Court will probably overturn many of the stays and even try to lock in policies so that an incoming administration can't easily reverse them.

To make matters even worse, overwhelmed and understaffed Park Rangers can hardly cope with heavy damage from flash flooding, tornadoes and wind damages across broad swaths of the county, wildfires in the West, and even erupting volcanos and a hurricane in Hawaii.  Repairs and restoration will take years with ever shrinking budgets.  Trumpists propose speeding the process by turning over protected land to private corporations for redevelopment and resource exploitation,

In many ways the National Park System and Service faces a dim future unless Democrats return to power in Congress this year and the White House in 2028.  Even then it will take years to recover from the wreckage.