A depiction of the Pueblo uprising from a Spanish perspective.
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On August 21, 1680 the embattled Spanish
at Santa Fe, New Mexico
broke a week long siege by members of several Pueblos and fled south to El
Paso del Norte abandoning the northern province of New Spain to the native residents. Despite
repeated efforts the Spanish were not able to retake control of the district for twelve years. It was the
first successful expulsion of Europeans
by a native people in North
America and only one of a handful of instances it was ever accomplished
even briefly.
Spanish settlement of New Mexico
dated to 1598 when several hundred Europeans established the settlement of San
Gabriel across the Rio Grande from San Juan Pueblo. About
1608, they moved their capital 25 miles north to Santa Fe. Although there
were frictions between the peace loving Pueblos and their new
neighbors, relations were generally amiable
until the Spanish began to treat the people as peons—virtual property
of the Church, state, and those holding royal
land grants.
By the mid-17th Century the
dual systems of encomienda—a tax on food
and other resources to support the Church, military,
and civil institutions that was so
high it frequently caused great want in the Pueblos—and repartimiento—the compulsion of set numbers of days per
year of forced labor in the service
of the Church, the state, and as field laborers and domestics on the haciendas
caused rising resentment. Still, the Pueblos remained peaceful, grateful at
least to the Spanish for protection from
raids by their traditional enemies
the Apache and the Navaho. They also adopted some Spanish agricultural practices.
This Pueblo Kachina dance in the early 20th Century was little changed from the practice that drew the wrath of Catholic priests.
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When Padre Alonzo de
Posada arrived about 1760 to become the chief Priest in New Mexico,
he made open war on traditional Pueblo culture,
particularly the kachina dances that were at the center of communal life. He ordered his priests to seize and
destroy all of the elaborate kachina
masks they could find and forbid the practice.
In 1675, Governor
Juan de Trevino arrested 47
Pueblo men and charged them with sorcery.
Four were condemned to death, three
were hanged and the fourth committed
suicide. The rest were publicly whipped in the plaza in Santa Fe and sentenced to slave labor. When much of Trevino’s garrison left to pursue Apache raiders, members of near-by Pueblos
descended on the capital and feed the prisoners including Popé, a shaman
of the San Juan Pueblo.
Popé began a slow, methodical organization of the Pueblos
to rise against the Spanish. It took five years of secret meetings at dozens of Pueblos and persuading those with
closer ties to the Spanish or who had more deeply adopted Catholicism to join
him. A prolonged drought
during this period aided him because the Spanish refused to let up on the
demands of encomienda even as crops failed.
The drought also
affected the more nomadic Apache and
Navaho whose game became scarce
bringing increasing raids against the Pueblos and Spanish alike. The
small Spanish garrison, far from the capital at Mexico City, received
scant reinforcements from the Viceroy
and were spread thin over thousands of square miles. The inability of the
Spanish to protect the Pueblos removed one of the few continuing reasons to
remain under their yoke and the tattered veneer
of military power made even the un-warlike Pueblo believe that they could
rise up.
The knotted ropes that were sent to the Pueblos to coordinate the time of the insurrection.
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After a final meeting at
Tesuque on August 8, 1680 Popé, dispatched two messengers carrying knotted ropes showing the number of
days before the revolt would begin to the Pueblos. The chief of each
Pueblo was to untie a knot each day and when the last knots were untied rise up
against the local priests and haciendas making a coordinated attack across the
province. It was a brilliant plan, but the Spanish got wind of it and Governor
Antonio de Otermin had the messengers arrested.
When the people of Tesuque found out, they rose up and
attacked the local church, expelling the priest and killing one Spaniard.
Padre Cristobal de Herrera returned the next day with one soldier to
find the pueblo deserted. He tracked the people into the hills where they
found and murdered him. The soldier fled to Santa Fe with news of an
uprising.
The rebels prepare to burn the body of a priest hung from a rafter of his destroyed church.
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Within days the Rio
Arriba area north of White Rock Canyon was devastated and depopulated. Churches and
haciendas were burned, any Spaniards who could be found—Priests (23 of who were
put to death as their churches burned), men, women, and children were—were
killed. Survivors fled to El Paso
del Norte or to the fortified governor’s palace at Santa Fe.
The Santa Fe Pueblo and
others near-by invaded the capital on August 13. The Spanish—heavily
armed with harquebuses (an early heavy matchlock musket),
soldiers sheathed in armor plate and
armed with steel swords—were able to
hold off the lightly armed Pueblo who had only bows and arrows, clubs, knives, and stones. The Pueblo, who were mainly used to defensive fighting around their towns
against Apache raiders, were not used to being on the offensive, fighting in large groups or laying a siege.
The Taos Pueblo, one of the largest in the uprising, as it appeared in a 1930's era post card and much the same as during the Revolt.
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They persisted, but
after a few days members of some Pueblos began to melt away. But they
were reinforced by others from Cochiti and Santo Domingo, led by Alonzo
Catiti of Santo Domingo.
The Spanish reported later to being besieged by as many as 2,500 warriors,
surely a wild exaggeration.
The attackers damned the stream that brought water
into Casa Reales, the governor’s palace. Within a few days the
Spanish began losing their horses and
pack animals. Gov. Otermin
decided that they would have to make a run for it while the still could.
After executing 47 warriors who had been captured
in fighting that morning, he led the break-out on the night of August
21.
Over the next 12 years,
Governor Otermin and his successor, Domingo Jironza Petriz de Cruzate,
struck periodically at Pueblo country and once Santa Fe was briefly re-occupied. But they could not
regain control.
Over time internal dissention wracked Pueblo
unity. Exactly what happened is unclear. There are conflicting oral traditions and no Europeans were left
alive to record the events. We know that pressure from the Apache and
Navaho, as well as from the Spanish continued.
Some accounts claim that
Popé became a brutal dictator,
inflamed to uproot any vestige of Spanish religion or culture. These
stories say that not only did he order all crosses,
Bibles,
and other Christian artifacts
burned, but he ordered that men who had been married by the Padres to abandon their wives and take new ones
by Pueblo custom. He also supposedly banned cultivation of European
crops, adding to starvation. These stories were, of course, circulated by the Spanish and by the
few Pueblo who remained loyal to the Church.
Other accounts have Popé
retiring to his San Juan Pueblo to live in obscurity. A third story has
him disappearing into the mists of time but ready to return when his people
need him, a variation of many hero
legends.
The Spanish--and some modern New Mexicans--honored Governor Diego de Vargas as a hero for his re-conquest of Santa Fe.
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By 1692 the Pueblo were
as dispirited as they were disunited. A new governor, Diego de Vargas with
only six Spanish soldiers, one cannon and a number of native allies from the Piro
tribes of the lower Rio Grande and some loyal Catholic Pueblo were able to bloodlessly retake Santa
Fe.
There were more battles,
some furious and bloody, followed by a general
persecution. New Mexico was firmly back under Spanish rule within a
year.
But the Pueblo did, in
the long run, win a lot. The Spanish never again tried to impose
encomienda or repartimiento. Priests allowed traditional cultural
practices and tried to find ways to adapt
them to Catholic worship instead of crushing them. The Spanish
recognized the land claims of the
Pueblo and their local self-government.
A statue of Pope in the New Mexico state museum.
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As a result to this day
of all of the tribes in what is now the United States, only the Pueblo
have been able to retain most of
their own land while maintaining
their rich culture and much of their
religious identity.
There were two other
long lasting side effects of the uprising and its aftermath. The
agricultural Pueblo traded the many
Spanish horses that came into their possession to the north enabling the
flourishing of the Plains Indian culture that developed in the 18th
Century. Secondly, many Pueblo forced to flee the Spanish and the
raiding Apache eventually went to join another ancient enemy the Navaho,
whose culture was greatly affected by the infusion.
Nice job, Pat. The folks of the pueblos may be better able to withstand the climate change than the rest of us.
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